This guide provides a comprehensive overview of C++, establishing it as a versatile and performant language that forms a strong foundation for various programming paradigms.

From the fundamental concepts of variables, data types, and control flow to the more advanced topics of object-oriented programming (OOP), templates, and the Standard Template Library (STL), the article systematically breaks down the core components of the language.

Ultimately, by mastering these essential elements, a programmer gains the ability to write efficient, powerful, and scalable applications in C++.

Introduction to C++

C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language that is widely used for developing applications that require performance, efficiency, and versatility. It supports various programming paradigms including procedural, object-oriented, and generic programming. C++ is an extension of the C programming language and provides additional features such as classes, inheritance, polymorphism, templates, and exception handling.

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Easy-to-Understand Code Examples

Below are some basic examples to illustrate these concepts. For a more detailed explanation, please refer to the corresponding code files.

1. Variables and Data Types

In C++, a variable is a container that holds data. Each variable has a data type that defines what kind of values it can store.

Common Data Types:

int: stores whole numbers (e.g., 10, -3, 2000).
double / float: stores decimal values (e.g., 3.14, -0.99).
char: stores a single character (e.g., 'A', 'z', '9').
bool: stores true or false.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int age = 20;               // integer variable
    double height = 5.9;        // floating-point variable
    char grade = 'A';           // character variable
    bool isStudent = true;      // boolean variable
 
    cout << "Age: " << age << endl;
    cout << "Height: " << height << endl;
    cout << "Grade: " << grade << endl;
    cout << "Is Student: " << boolalpha << isStudent << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

age stores an integer value.
height stores a decimal number.
grade stores a single character.
isStudent is a boolean (true or false).

boolalpha is used to print true/false instead of 1/0.

2. Control Statements

Control statements allow the program to make decisions. The most common is the if-else statement.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int number;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> number;
 
    if (number > 0) {
        cout << "The number is positive." << endl;
    } else if (number < 0) {
        cout << "The number is negative." << endl;
    } else {
        cout << "The number is zero." << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

The program takes input from the user using cin.
The if checks whether the number is positive.
The else if checks for negative.
The else executes if none of the above conditions are true (i.e., number is zero).

3. Loops

Loops allow us to execute code repeatedly.

Types of Loops in C++:

for loop: repeats for a fixed number of times.
while loop: repeats as long as a condition is true.
do-while loop: executes at least once, then checks condition.

Example (`for` loop):

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; ++i) {
        cout << "Iteration " << i << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

int i = 1: loop starts with i = 1.
i <= 5: loop continues until i is less than or equal to 5.
++i: increases i by 1 after every iteration.
The loop runs 5 times.

4. Functions

A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. It can take parameters (inputs) and return a value (output).

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;  // return the sum
}
 
int main() {
    int result = add(5, 3); // call the function
    cout << "Sum: " << result << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

add is a function that takes two integers and returns their sum.
result stores the returned value from add(5, 3).

5. Arrays

An array is a collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory locations.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};  // array of 5 integers
 
    for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
        cout << "Element " << i << ": " << numbers[i] << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

numbers[5] creates an array with 5 integers.
Indexing starts from 0 → numbers[0] = 1, numbers[1] = 2, etc.
The loop prints each element.

6. Pointers

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int number = 10;
    int *ptr = &number;  // pointer stores the address of 'number'
 
    cout << "Value: " << number << endl;     // prints 10
    cout << "Pointer: " << ptr << endl;      // prints address in memory
    cout << "Dereferenced: " << *ptr << endl; // prints value at that address (10)
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

&number gives the memory address of number.
ptr stores that address.
*ptr dereferences the pointer (accesses the value stored at that address).

7. Structures and Unions

Structures:

Structures are user-defined data types that allow grouping different data types together.
Each element in a structure is called a member.
Members can be of different types (e.g., int, float, char).

Example of Structures:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct Student {
    string name;
    int age;
    float gpa;
};
 
int main() {
    Student student1;
    student1.name = "John";
    student1.age = 20;
    student1.gpa = 3.5;
 
    cout << "Name: " << student1.name << endl;
    cout << "Age: " << student1.age << endl;
    cout << "GPA: " << student1.gpa << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Unions:

Unions are similar to structures but with a key difference: all members share the same memory location.
Only one member can contain a value at any given time.
Useful for memory-saving when storing different types of data in the same memory location.

Example of Unions:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
union Data {
    int i;
    float f;
    char str[20];
};
 
int main() {
    Data data;
    data.i = 10;
    cout << "Data as integer: " << data.i << endl;
 
    data.f = 220.5;
    cout << "Data as float: " << data.f << endl;
 
    strcpy(data.str, "C++ Programming");
    cout << "Data as string: " << data.str << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

8. Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation allows the program to allocate memory at runtime using pointers.
This is useful when the size of data is not known at compile time.

Functions for Dynamic Memory Allocation:

malloc(): Allocates a block of memory.
calloc(): Allocates a block of memory and initializes it to zero.
free(): Deallocates a previously allocated block of memory.
new: Allocates memory (C++).
delete: Deallocates memory (C++).

Example of Dynamic Memory Allocation:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int* ptr;
    int n;
 
    cout << "Enter number of elements: ";
    cin >> n;
 
    // Dynamically allocate memory using new
    ptr = new int[n];
 
    // Check if memory has been allocated successfully
    if (!ptr) {
        cout << "Memory allocation failed" << endl;
        return 1;
    }
 
    cout << "Enter elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cin >> ptr[i];
    }
 
    cout << "You entered: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cout << ptr[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Deallocate memory
    delete[] ptr;
 
    return 0;
}

9. File I/O

File I/O allows a program to read from and write to files.
Use file streams (ifstream for input, ofstream for output, and fstream for both).

Example of File I/O:

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    // Writing to a file
    ofstream outFile("example.txt");
    if (outFile.is_open()) {
        outFile << "Hello, file!" << endl;
        outFile << "C++ File I/O example." << endl;
        outFile.close();
    } else {
        cout << "Unable to open file for writing" << endl;
    }
 
    // Reading from a file
    ifstream inFile("example.txt");
    if (inFile.is_open()) {
        string line;
        while (getline(inFile, line)) {
            cout << line << endl;
        }
        inFile.close();
    } else {
        cout << "Unable to open file for reading" << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

In the examples above:

Structures: The Student structure groups different types of data together.
Unions: The Data union shares memory among its members.
Dynamic Memory Allocation: Memory is dynamically allocated for an array of integers and then deallocated.
File I/O: Demonstrates writing to and reading from a text file.

10. Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Object Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that uses objects and classes to design and develop applications. OOP aims to implement real-world entities like inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation, and abstraction in programming. The main principles of OOP are:

Encapsulation: Wrapping data and methods into a single unit (class).
Abstraction: Hiding the complex implementation details and showing only the essential features.
Inheritance: The mechanism by which one class can inherit properties and behaviors from another class.
Polymorphism: The ability to use a single interface to represent different underlying forms (data types).

Basic Example of OOP in C++

Here is a simple example to illustrate OOP concepts in C++:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
// Base class
class Animal {
public:
    void eat() {
        cout << "Eating..." << endl;
    }
};
 
// Derived class
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
    void bark() {
        cout << "Barking..." << endl;
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Dog dog;
    dog.eat();  // Inherited from Animal class
    dog.bark(); // Specific to Dog class
 
    return 0;
}

In this example:

Encapsulation: The Animal and Dog classes encapsulate data and methods.
Inheritance: The Dog class inherits the eat method from the Animal class.
Polymorphism: Although not directly shown here, polymorphism would allow different classes to be treated as instances of the same class through inheritance.

Difference Between Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) and Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

`Feature`	`Procedural Oriented Programming (POP)`	`Object Oriented Programming (OOP)`
Approach	Follows a top-down approach	Follows a bottom-up approach
Structure	Program is divided into functions	Program is divided into objects
Data Access	Data is global and shared by functions	Data is encapsulated in objects
Data Security	Less secure as data is exposed	More secure due to encapsulation
Focus	Focuses on functions	Focuses on objects
Code Reusability	Less reusability	High reusability through inheritance
Inheritance	Does not support inheritance	Supports inheritance
Polymorphism	Does not support polymorphism	Supports polymorphism
Examples	C, Pascal	C++, Java, Python

11. C++ Templates & STL

Templates in C++ allow writing generic and reusable code. They enable functions and classes to operate with different data types without rewriting the entire code for each type.

Function Templates:

Function templates define a generic function that can work with any data type.

Example of Function Template:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
template <typename T>
T add(T a, T b) {
    return a + b;
}
 
int main() {
    cout << "Sum of integers: " << add(3, 4) << endl;          // int
    cout << "Sum of doubles: " << add(3.5, 4.5) << endl;      // double
    cout << "Sum of strings: " << add(string("Hello, "), string("World!")) << endl; // string
 
    return 0;
}

Class Templates:

Class templates define a blueprint for a class that can handle different data types.

Example of Class Template:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
template <typename T>
class Calculator {
public:
    T add(T a, T b) {
        return a + b;
    }
    T subtract(T a, T b) {
        return a - b;
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Calculator<int> intCalc;
    cout << "Integer addition: " << intCalc.add(5, 3) << endl;
    cout << "Integer subtraction: " << intCalc.subtract(5, 3) << endl;
 
    Calculator<double> doubleCalc;
    cout << "Double addition: " << doubleCalc.add(5.5, 3.3) << endl;
    cout << "Double subtraction: " << doubleCalc.subtract(5.5, 3.3) << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

C++ Standard Template Library (STL)

The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) is a powerful library that provides generic classes and functions. It includes four main components:

Algorithms: Functions for sorting, searching, and manipulating data.
Containers: Data structures like vectors, lists, and maps that store collections of objects.
Iterators: Objects that point to elements within containers and are used to traverse the containers.
Function Objects: Objects that can be called as if they are ordinary functions.

Example of STL with Vectors:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    vector<int> numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
 
    // Add elements to the vector
    numbers.push_back(6);
    numbers.push_back(7);
 
    // Access elements
    cout << "Vector elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < numbers.size(); ++i) {
        cout << numbers[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Use iterator to traverse the vector
    cout << "Vector elements using iterator: ";
    for (vector<int>::iterator it = numbers.begin(); it != numbers.end(); ++it) {
        cout << *it << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Use algorithm to sort the vector
    sort(numbers.begin(), numbers.end());
 
    cout << "Sorted vector elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < numbers.size(); ++i) {
        cout << numbers[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Example of STL with Maps:

#include <iostream>
#include <map>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    map<string, int> ageMap;
 
    // Insert elements into the map
    ageMap["Alice"] = 30;
    ageMap["Bob"] = 25;
    ageMap["Charlie"] = 35;
 
    // Access elements
    cout << "Alice's age: " << ageMap["Alice"] << endl;
    cout << "Bob's age: " << ageMap["Bob"] << endl;
 
    // Use iterator to traverse the map
    cout << "All elements in the map:" << endl;
    for (map<string, int>::iterator it = ageMap.begin(); it != ageMap.end(); ++it) {
        cout << it->first << ": " << it->second << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

In these examples:

Function Templates: add function template works with different data types.
Class Templates: Calculator class template performs addition and subtraction for different data types.
STL with Vectors: Demonstrates vector operations including adding, accessing, and sorting elements.
STL with Maps: Demonstrates map operations including inserting, accessing, and iterating over elements.

Data Structures and Algorithms (DSA)

Arrays
Strings
Linked Lists
Stacks
Queues
Trees
Graphs
Hashing
Recursion and Backtracking
Dynamic Programming
Sorting Algorithms
Searching Algorithms

Arrays

Key Concepts

Fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type.
Access elements via indices.
Common operations: Traversal, Insertion, Deletion, Searching, Sorting.

Example Problem: Find the Maximum Element

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
int findMax(const vector<int>& arr) {
    int maxElement = arr[0];
    for (int i = 1; i < arr.size(); ++i) {
        if (arr[i] > maxElement) {
            maxElement = arr[i];
        }
    }
    return maxElement;
}
 
int main() {
    vector<int> arr = {1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6};
    cout << "Maximum Element: " << findMax(arr) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Strings

Key Concepts

Sequence of characters.
Common operations: Length, Concatenation, Substring, Comparison, Searching, Pattern Matching.

Example Problem: Reverse a String

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;
 
string reverseString(const string& str) {
    string reversedStr = str;
    int n = str.length();
    for (int i = 0; i < n / 2; ++i) {
        swap(reversedStr[i], reversedStr[n - i - 1]);
    }
    return reversedStr;
}
 
int main() {
    string str = "Hello, World!";
    cout << "Reversed String: " << reverseString(str) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Linked Lists

Key Concepts

Sequence of elements where each element points to the next element.
Types: Singly Linked List, Doubly Linked List, Circular Linked List.
Common operations: Traversal, Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Reverse a Singly Linked List

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct ListNode {
    int val;
    ListNode* next;
    ListNode(int x) : val(x), next(nullptr) {}
};
 
ListNode* reverseList(ListNode* head) {
    ListNode* prev = nullptr;
    ListNode* curr = head;
    while (curr != nullptr) {
        ListNode* nextTemp = curr->next;
        curr->next = prev;
        prev = curr;
        curr = nextTemp;
    }
    return prev;
}
 
void printList(ListNode* head) {
    while (head != nullptr) {
        cout << head->val << " ";
        head = head->next;
    }
    cout << endl;
}
 
int main() {
    ListNode* head = new ListNode(1);
    head->next = new ListNode(2);
    head->next->next = new ListNode(3);
    head->next->next->next = new ListNode(4);
    head->next->next->next->next = new ListNode(5);
 
    cout << "Original List: ";
    printList(head);
 
    head = reverseList(head);
 
    cout << "Reversed List: ";
    printList(head);
 
    return 0;
}

Stacks

Key Concepts

Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure.
Operations: Push, Pop, Peek, IsEmpty.

Example Problem: Check for Balanced Parentheses

#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;
 
bool isBalanced(string str) {
    stack<char> s;
    for (char c : str) {
        if (c == '(' || c == '{' || c == '[') {
            s.push(c);
        } else {
            if (s.empty()) return false;
            char top = s.top();
            if ((c == ')' && top == '(') || (c == '}' && top == '{') || (c == ']' && top == '[')) {
                s.pop();
            } else {
                return false;
            }
        }
    }
    return s.empty();
}
 
int main() {
    string str = "{[()]}";
    cout << (isBalanced(str) ? "Balanced" : "Not Balanced") << endl;
    return 0;
}

Queues

Key Concepts

First In First Out (FIFO) data structure.
Operations: Enqueue, Dequeue, Front, IsEmpty.

Example Problem: Implement a Queue using Two Stacks

#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;
 
class Queue {
    stack<int> s1, s2;
 
public:
    void enqueue(int x) {
        s1.push(x);
    }
 
    int dequeue() {
        if (s2.empty()) {
            while (!s1.empty()) {
                s2.push(s1.top());
                s1.pop();
            }
        }
        int x = s2.top();
        s2.pop();
        return x;
    }
 
    bool isEmpty() {
        return s1.empty() && s2.empty();
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Queue q;
    q.enqueue(1);
    q.enqueue(2);
    q.enqueue(3);
 
    cout << q.dequeue() << endl;
    cout << q.dequeue() << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Trees

Key Concepts

Hierarchical data structure with nodes.
Types: Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree, AVL Tree, Red-Black Tree.
Common operations: Traversal (Inorder, Preorder, Postorder), Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Inorder Traversal of a Binary Tree

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct TreeNode {
    int val;
    TreeNode* left;
    TreeNode* right;
    TreeNode(int x) : val(x), left(nullptr), right(nullptr) {}
};
 
void inorderTraversal(TreeNode* root) {
    if (root == nullptr) return;
    inorderTraversal(root->left);
    cout << root->val << " ";
    inorderTraversal(root->right);
}
 
int main() {
    TreeNode* root = new TreeNode(1);
    root->right = new TreeNode(2);
    root->right->left = new TreeNode(3);
 
    cout << "Inorder Traversal: ";
    inorderTraversal(root);
 
    return 0;
}

Graphs

Key Concepts

Collection of nodes and edges.
Types: Directed, Undirected, Weighted, Unweighted.
Representations: Adjacency Matrix, Adjacency List.
Common operations: Traversal (DFS, BFS), Shortest Path (Dijkstra, Bellman-Ford), Minimum Spanning Tree (Kruskal, Prim).

Example Problem: Depth-First Search (DFS)

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
void DFS(int v, vector<bool>& visited, const vector<vector<int>>& adj) {
    visited[v] = true;
    cout << v << " ";
    for (int u : adj[v]) {
        if (!visited[u]) {
            DFS(u, visited, adj);
        }
    }
}
 
int main() {
    int V = 4;
    vector<vector<int>> adj(V);
    adj[0].push_back(1);
    adj[0].push_back(2);
    adj[1].push_back(2);
    adj[2].push_back(0);
    adj[2].push_back(3);
    adj[3].push_back(3);
 
    vector<bool> visited(V, false);
 
    cout << "DFS Traversal starting from vertex 2: ";
    DFS(2, visited, adj);
 
    return 0;
}

Hashing

Key Concepts

Mapping keys to values using a hash function.
Common operations: Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Implement a Simple Hash Table

#include <iostream>
#include <list>
using namespace std;
 
class HashTable {
    int BUCKET;
    list<int>* table;
 
public:
    HashTable(int V) {
        BUCKET = V;
        table = new list<int>[BUCKET];
    }
 
    void insertItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        table[index].push_back(key);
    }
 
    void deleteItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        table[index].remove(key);
    }
 
    bool searchItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        for (auto x : table[index]) {
            if (x ==
 
 key) return true;
        }
        return false;
    }
 
    void displayHash() {
        for (int i = 0; i < BUCKET; i++) {
            cout << i;
            for (auto x : table[i])
                cout << " --> " << x;
            cout << endl;
        }
    }
};
 
int main() {
    int keys[] = {15, 11, 27, 8, 12};
    int n = sizeof(keys) / sizeof(keys[0]);
 
    HashTable h(7);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        h.insertItem(keys[i]);
    }
 
    h.displayHash();
 
    return 0;
}

Recursion and Backtracking

Key Concepts

Recursion: Function calling itself.
Backtracking: Trying out all possible solutions and eliminating invalid ones.

Example Problem: Solving N-Queens Problem

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
bool isSafe(vector<vector<int>>& board, int row, int col) {
    int i, j;
    int N = board.size();
 
    for (i = 0; i < col; i++)
        if (board[row][i])
            return false;
 
    for (i = row, j = col; i >= 0 && j >= 0; i--, j--)
        if (board[i][j])
            return false;
 
    for (i = row, j = col; j >= 0 && i < N; i++, j--)
        if (board[i][j])
            return false;
 
    return true;
}
 
bool solveNQUtil(vector<vector<int>>& board, int col) {
    int N = board.size();
    if (col >= N)
        return true;
 
    for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
        if (isSafe(board, i, col)) {
            board[i][col] = 1;
 
            if (solveNQUtil(board, col + 1))
                return true;
 
            board[i][col] = 0;
        }
    }
 
    return false;
}
 
void solveNQ(int N) {
    vector<vector<int>> board(N, vector<int>(N, 0));
 
    if (solveNQUtil(board, 0)) {
        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
            for (int j = 0; j < N; j++)
                cout << board[i][j] << " ";
            cout << endl;
        }
    } else {
        cout << "Solution does not exist" << endl;
    }
}
 
int main() {
    int N = 4;
    solveNQ(N);
    return 0;
}

Dynamic Programming

Key Concepts

Solving problems by breaking them into simpler subproblems and storing the results to avoid redundant calculations.

Example Problem: Fibonacci Sequence

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int fib(int n) {
    int* f = new int[n + 1];
    f[0] = 0;
    f[1] = 1;
 
    for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
        f[i] = f[i - 1] + f[i - 2];
    }
 
    return f[n];
}
 
int main() {
    int n = 10;
    cout << "Fibonacci number is " << fib(n) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Sorting Algorithms

Key Concepts

Arranging elements in a particular order.
Common algorithms: Bubble Sort, Selection Sort, Insertion Sort, Merge Sort, Quick Sort, Heap Sort.

Example Problem: Quick Sort

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
void swap(int* a, int* b) {
    int t = *a;
    *a = *b;
    *b = t;
}
 
int partition(int arr[], int low, int high) {
    int pivot = arr[high];
    int i = (low - 1);
 
    for (int j = low; j <= high - 1; j++) {
        if (arr[j] < pivot) {
            i++;
            swap(&arr[i], &arr[j]);
        }
    }
    swap(&arr[i + 1], &arr[high]);
    return (i + 1);
}
 
void quickSort(int arr[], int low, int high) {
    if (low < high) {
        int pi = partition(arr, low, high);
 
        quickSort(arr, low, pi - 1);
        quickSort(arr, pi + 1, high);
    }
}
 
void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        cout << arr[i] << " ";
    cout << endl;
}
 
int main() {
    int arr[] = {10, 7, 8, 9, 1, 5};
    int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
    quickSort(arr, 0, n - 1);
    cout << "Sorted array: ";
    printArray(arr, n);
    return 0;
}

Searching Algorithms

Key Concepts

Finding an element in a collection.
Common algorithms: Linear Search, Binary Search.

Example Problem: Binary Search

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int binarySearch(int arr[], int l, int r, int x) {
    while (l <= r) {
        int m = l + (r - l) / 2;
 
        if (arr[m] == x)
            return m;
 
        if (arr[m] < x)
            l = m + 1;
        else
            r = m - 1;
    }
 
    return -1;
}
 
int main() {
    int arr[] = {2, 3, 4, 10, 40};
    int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
    int x = 10;
    int result = binarySearch(arr, 0, n - 1, x);
    if (result != -1)
        cout << "Element is present at index " << result << endl;
    else
        cout << "Element is not present in array" << endl;
    return 0;
}

...

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This guide provides a comprehensive overview of C++, establishing it as a versatile and performant language that forms a strong foundation for various programming paradigms.

Ultimately, by mastering these essential elements, a programmer gains the ability to write efficient, powerful, and scalable applications in C++.

Introduction to C++

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You can Learn & Write C++ Code in Our Free Online C++ Compiler : C++ Compiler - Akash Halder

Easy-to-Understand Code Examples

Below are some basic examples to illustrate these concepts. For a more detailed explanation, please refer to the corresponding code files.

1. Variables and Data Types

In C++, a variable is a container that holds data. Each variable has a data type that defines what kind of values it can store.

Common Data Types:

int: stores whole numbers (e.g., 10, -3, 2000).
double / float: stores decimal values (e.g., 3.14, -0.99).
char: stores a single character (e.g., 'A', 'z', '9').
bool: stores true or false.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int age = 20;               // integer variable
    double height = 5.9;        // floating-point variable
    char grade = 'A';           // character variable
    bool isStudent = true;      // boolean variable
 
    cout << "Age: " << age << endl;
    cout << "Height: " << height << endl;
    cout << "Grade: " << grade << endl;
    cout << "Is Student: " << boolalpha << isStudent << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

age stores an integer value.
height stores a decimal number.
grade stores a single character.
isStudent is a boolean (true or false).

boolalpha is used to print true/false instead of 1/0.

2. Control Statements

Control statements allow the program to make decisions. The most common is the if-else statement.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int number;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> number;
 
    if (number > 0) {
        cout << "The number is positive." << endl;
    } else if (number < 0) {
        cout << "The number is negative." << endl;
    } else {
        cout << "The number is zero." << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

The program takes input from the user using cin.
The if checks whether the number is positive.
The else if checks for negative.
The else executes if none of the above conditions are true (i.e., number is zero).

3. Loops

Loops allow us to execute code repeatedly.

Types of Loops in C++:

for loop: repeats for a fixed number of times.
while loop: repeats as long as a condition is true.
do-while loop: executes at least once, then checks condition.

Example (`for` loop):

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; ++i) {
        cout << "Iteration " << i << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

int i = 1: loop starts with i = 1.
i <= 5: loop continues until i is less than or equal to 5.
++i: increases i by 1 after every iteration.
The loop runs 5 times.

4. Functions

A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. It can take parameters (inputs) and return a value (output).

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
// Function definition
int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;  // return the sum
}
 
int main() {
    int result = add(5, 3); // call the function
    cout << "Sum: " << result << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

add is a function that takes two integers and returns their sum.
result stores the returned value from add(5, 3).

5. Arrays

An array is a collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory locations.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};  // array of 5 integers
 
    for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
        cout << "Element " << i << ": " << numbers[i] << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

numbers[5] creates an array with 5 integers.
Indexing starts from 0 → numbers[0] = 1, numbers[1] = 2, etc.
The loop prints each element.

6. Pointers

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable.

Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int number = 10;
    int *ptr = &number;  // pointer stores the address of 'number'
 
    cout << "Value: " << number << endl;     // prints 10
    cout << "Pointer: " << ptr << endl;      // prints address in memory
    cout << "Dereferenced: " << *ptr << endl; // prints value at that address (10)
 
    return 0;
}

Here:

&number gives the memory address of number.
ptr stores that address.
*ptr dereferences the pointer (accesses the value stored at that address).

7. Structures and Unions

Structures:

Structures are user-defined data types that allow grouping different data types together.
Each element in a structure is called a member.
Members can be of different types (e.g., int, float, char).

Example of Structures:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct Student {
    string name;
    int age;
    float gpa;
};
 
int main() {
    Student student1;
    student1.name = "John";
    student1.age = 20;
    student1.gpa = 3.5;
 
    cout << "Name: " << student1.name << endl;
    cout << "Age: " << student1.age << endl;
    cout << "GPA: " << student1.gpa << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Unions:

Unions are similar to structures but with a key difference: all members share the same memory location.
Only one member can contain a value at any given time.
Useful for memory-saving when storing different types of data in the same memory location.

Example of Unions:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
union Data {
    int i;
    float f;
    char str[20];
};
 
int main() {
    Data data;
    data.i = 10;
    cout << "Data as integer: " << data.i << endl;
 
    data.f = 220.5;
    cout << "Data as float: " << data.f << endl;
 
    strcpy(data.str, "C++ Programming");
    cout << "Data as string: " << data.str << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

8. Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation allows the program to allocate memory at runtime using pointers.
This is useful when the size of data is not known at compile time.

Functions for Dynamic Memory Allocation:

malloc(): Allocates a block of memory.
calloc(): Allocates a block of memory and initializes it to zero.
free(): Deallocates a previously allocated block of memory.
new: Allocates memory (C++).
delete: Deallocates memory (C++).

Example of Dynamic Memory Allocation:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    int* ptr;
    int n;
 
    cout << "Enter number of elements: ";
    cin >> n;
 
    // Dynamically allocate memory using new
    ptr = new int[n];
 
    // Check if memory has been allocated successfully
    if (!ptr) {
        cout << "Memory allocation failed" << endl;
        return 1;
    }
 
    cout << "Enter elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cin >> ptr[i];
    }
 
    cout << "You entered: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cout << ptr[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Deallocate memory
    delete[] ptr;
 
    return 0;
}

9. File I/O

File I/O allows a program to read from and write to files.
Use file streams (ifstream for input, ofstream for output, and fstream for both).

Example of File I/O:

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    // Writing to a file
    ofstream outFile("example.txt");
    if (outFile.is_open()) {
        outFile << "Hello, file!" << endl;
        outFile << "C++ File I/O example." << endl;
        outFile.close();
    } else {
        cout << "Unable to open file for writing" << endl;
    }
 
    // Reading from a file
    ifstream inFile("example.txt");
    if (inFile.is_open()) {
        string line;
        while (getline(inFile, line)) {
            cout << line << endl;
        }
        inFile.close();
    } else {
        cout << "Unable to open file for reading" << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

In the examples above:

Structures: The Student structure groups different types of data together.
Unions: The Data union shares memory among its members.
Dynamic Memory Allocation: Memory is dynamically allocated for an array of integers and then deallocated.
File I/O: Demonstrates writing to and reading from a text file.

10. Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Encapsulation: Wrapping data and methods into a single unit (class).
Abstraction: Hiding the complex implementation details and showing only the essential features.
Inheritance: The mechanism by which one class can inherit properties and behaviors from another class.
Polymorphism: The ability to use a single interface to represent different underlying forms (data types).

Basic Example of OOP in C++

Here is a simple example to illustrate OOP concepts in C++:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
// Base class
class Animal {
public:
    void eat() {
        cout << "Eating..." << endl;
    }
};
 
// Derived class
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
    void bark() {
        cout << "Barking..." << endl;
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Dog dog;
    dog.eat();  // Inherited from Animal class
    dog.bark(); // Specific to Dog class
 
    return 0;
}

In this example:

Encapsulation: The Animal and Dog classes encapsulate data and methods.
Inheritance: The Dog class inherits the eat method from the Animal class.
Polymorphism: Although not directly shown here, polymorphism would allow different classes to be treated as instances of the same class through inheritance.

Difference Between Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) and Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

`Feature`	`Procedural Oriented Programming (POP)`	`Object Oriented Programming (OOP)`
Approach	Follows a top-down approach	Follows a bottom-up approach
Structure	Program is divided into functions	Program is divided into objects
Data Access	Data is global and shared by functions	Data is encapsulated in objects
Data Security	Less secure as data is exposed	More secure due to encapsulation
Focus	Focuses on functions	Focuses on objects
Code Reusability	Less reusability	High reusability through inheritance
Inheritance	Does not support inheritance	Supports inheritance
Polymorphism	Does not support polymorphism	Supports polymorphism
Examples	C, Pascal	C++, Java, Python

11. C++ Templates & STL

Templates in C++ allow writing generic and reusable code. They enable functions and classes to operate with different data types without rewriting the entire code for each type.

Function Templates:

Function templates define a generic function that can work with any data type.

Example of Function Template:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
template <typename T>
T add(T a, T b) {
    return a + b;
}
 
int main() {
    cout << "Sum of integers: " << add(3, 4) << endl;          // int
    cout << "Sum of doubles: " << add(3.5, 4.5) << endl;      // double
    cout << "Sum of strings: " << add(string("Hello, "), string("World!")) << endl; // string
 
    return 0;
}

Class Templates:

Class templates define a blueprint for a class that can handle different data types.

Example of Class Template:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
template <typename T>
class Calculator {
public:
    T add(T a, T b) {
        return a + b;
    }
    T subtract(T a, T b) {
        return a - b;
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Calculator<int> intCalc;
    cout << "Integer addition: " << intCalc.add(5, 3) << endl;
    cout << "Integer subtraction: " << intCalc.subtract(5, 3) << endl;
 
    Calculator<double> doubleCalc;
    cout << "Double addition: " << doubleCalc.add(5.5, 3.3) << endl;
    cout << "Double subtraction: " << doubleCalc.subtract(5.5, 3.3) << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

C++ Standard Template Library (STL)

The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) is a powerful library that provides generic classes and functions. It includes four main components:

Algorithms: Functions for sorting, searching, and manipulating data.
Containers: Data structures like vectors, lists, and maps that store collections of objects.
Iterators: Objects that point to elements within containers and are used to traverse the containers.
Function Objects: Objects that can be called as if they are ordinary functions.

Example of STL with Vectors:

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    vector<int> numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
 
    // Add elements to the vector
    numbers.push_back(6);
    numbers.push_back(7);
 
    // Access elements
    cout << "Vector elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < numbers.size(); ++i) {
        cout << numbers[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Use iterator to traverse the vector
    cout << "Vector elements using iterator: ";
    for (vector<int>::iterator it = numbers.begin(); it != numbers.end(); ++it) {
        cout << *it << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    // Use algorithm to sort the vector
    sort(numbers.begin(), numbers.end());
 
    cout << "Sorted vector elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < numbers.size(); ++i) {
        cout << numbers[i] << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Example of STL with Maps:

#include <iostream>
#include <map>
using namespace std;
 
int main() {
    map<string, int> ageMap;
 
    // Insert elements into the map
    ageMap["Alice"] = 30;
    ageMap["Bob"] = 25;
    ageMap["Charlie"] = 35;
 
    // Access elements
    cout << "Alice's age: " << ageMap["Alice"] << endl;
    cout << "Bob's age: " << ageMap["Bob"] << endl;
 
    // Use iterator to traverse the map
    cout << "All elements in the map:" << endl;
    for (map<string, int>::iterator it = ageMap.begin(); it != ageMap.end(); ++it) {
        cout << it->first << ": " << it->second << endl;
    }
 
    return 0;
}

In these examples:

Function Templates: add function template works with different data types.
Class Templates: Calculator class template performs addition and subtraction for different data types.
STL with Vectors: Demonstrates vector operations including adding, accessing, and sorting elements.
STL with Maps: Demonstrates map operations including inserting, accessing, and iterating over elements.

Data Structures and Algorithms (DSA)

Arrays
Strings
Linked Lists
Stacks
Queues
Trees
Graphs
Hashing
Recursion and Backtracking
Dynamic Programming
Sorting Algorithms
Searching Algorithms

Arrays

Key Concepts

Fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type.
Access elements via indices.
Common operations: Traversal, Insertion, Deletion, Searching, Sorting.

Example Problem: Find the Maximum Element

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
int findMax(const vector<int>& arr) {
    int maxElement = arr[0];
    for (int i = 1; i < arr.size(); ++i) {
        if (arr[i] > maxElement) {
            maxElement = arr[i];
        }
    }
    return maxElement;
}
 
int main() {
    vector<int> arr = {1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6};
    cout << "Maximum Element: " << findMax(arr) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Strings

Key Concepts

Sequence of characters.
Common operations: Length, Concatenation, Substring, Comparison, Searching, Pattern Matching.

Example Problem: Reverse a String

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;
 
string reverseString(const string& str) {
    string reversedStr = str;
    int n = str.length();
    for (int i = 0; i < n / 2; ++i) {
        swap(reversedStr[i], reversedStr[n - i - 1]);
    }
    return reversedStr;
}
 
int main() {
    string str = "Hello, World!";
    cout << "Reversed String: " << reverseString(str) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Linked Lists

Key Concepts

Sequence of elements where each element points to the next element.
Types: Singly Linked List, Doubly Linked List, Circular Linked List.
Common operations: Traversal, Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Reverse a Singly Linked List

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct ListNode {
    int val;
    ListNode* next;
    ListNode(int x) : val(x), next(nullptr) {}
};
 
ListNode* reverseList(ListNode* head) {
    ListNode* prev = nullptr;
    ListNode* curr = head;
    while (curr != nullptr) {
        ListNode* nextTemp = curr->next;
        curr->next = prev;
        prev = curr;
        curr = nextTemp;
    }
    return prev;
}
 
void printList(ListNode* head) {
    while (head != nullptr) {
        cout << head->val << " ";
        head = head->next;
    }
    cout << endl;
}
 
int main() {
    ListNode* head = new ListNode(1);
    head->next = new ListNode(2);
    head->next->next = new ListNode(3);
    head->next->next->next = new ListNode(4);
    head->next->next->next->next = new ListNode(5);
 
    cout << "Original List: ";
    printList(head);
 
    head = reverseList(head);
 
    cout << "Reversed List: ";
    printList(head);
 
    return 0;
}

Stacks

Key Concepts

Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure.
Operations: Push, Pop, Peek, IsEmpty.

Example Problem: Check for Balanced Parentheses

#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;
 
bool isBalanced(string str) {
    stack<char> s;
    for (char c : str) {
        if (c == '(' || c == '{' || c == '[') {
            s.push(c);
        } else {
            if (s.empty()) return false;
            char top = s.top();
            if ((c == ')' && top == '(') || (c == '}' && top == '{') || (c == ']' && top == '[')) {
                s.pop();
            } else {
                return false;
            }
        }
    }
    return s.empty();
}
 
int main() {
    string str = "{[()]}";
    cout << (isBalanced(str) ? "Balanced" : "Not Balanced") << endl;
    return 0;
}

Queues

Key Concepts

First In First Out (FIFO) data structure.
Operations: Enqueue, Dequeue, Front, IsEmpty.

Example Problem: Implement a Queue using Two Stacks

#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;
 
class Queue {
    stack<int> s1, s2;
 
public:
    void enqueue(int x) {
        s1.push(x);
    }
 
    int dequeue() {
        if (s2.empty()) {
            while (!s1.empty()) {
                s2.push(s1.top());
                s1.pop();
            }
        }
        int x = s2.top();
        s2.pop();
        return x;
    }
 
    bool isEmpty() {
        return s1.empty() && s2.empty();
    }
};
 
int main() {
    Queue q;
    q.enqueue(1);
    q.enqueue(2);
    q.enqueue(3);
 
    cout << q.dequeue() << endl;
    cout << q.dequeue() << endl;
 
    return 0;
}

Trees

Key Concepts

Hierarchical data structure with nodes.
Types: Binary Tree, Binary Search Tree, AVL Tree, Red-Black Tree.
Common operations: Traversal (Inorder, Preorder, Postorder), Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Inorder Traversal of a Binary Tree

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
struct TreeNode {
    int val;
    TreeNode* left;
    TreeNode* right;
    TreeNode(int x) : val(x), left(nullptr), right(nullptr) {}
};
 
void inorderTraversal(TreeNode* root) {
    if (root == nullptr) return;
    inorderTraversal(root->left);
    cout << root->val << " ";
    inorderTraversal(root->right);
}
 
int main() {
    TreeNode* root = new TreeNode(1);
    root->right = new TreeNode(2);
    root->right->left = new TreeNode(3);
 
    cout << "Inorder Traversal: ";
    inorderTraversal(root);
 
    return 0;
}

Graphs

Key Concepts

Collection of nodes and edges.
Types: Directed, Undirected, Weighted, Unweighted.
Representations: Adjacency Matrix, Adjacency List.
Common operations: Traversal (DFS, BFS), Shortest Path (Dijkstra, Bellman-Ford), Minimum Spanning Tree (Kruskal, Prim).

Example Problem: Depth-First Search (DFS)

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
void DFS(int v, vector<bool>& visited, const vector<vector<int>>& adj) {
    visited[v] = true;
    cout << v << " ";
    for (int u : adj[v]) {
        if (!visited[u]) {
            DFS(u, visited, adj);
        }
    }
}
 
int main() {
    int V = 4;
    vector<vector<int>> adj(V);
    adj[0].push_back(1);
    adj[0].push_back(2);
    adj[1].push_back(2);
    adj[2].push_back(0);
    adj[2].push_back(3);
    adj[3].push_back(3);
 
    vector<bool> visited(V, false);
 
    cout << "DFS Traversal starting from vertex 2: ";
    DFS(2, visited, adj);
 
    return 0;
}

Hashing

Key Concepts

Mapping keys to values using a hash function.
Common operations: Insertion, Deletion, Searching.

Example Problem: Implement a Simple Hash Table

#include <iostream>
#include <list>
using namespace std;
 
class HashTable {
    int BUCKET;
    list<int>* table;
 
public:
    HashTable(int V) {
        BUCKET = V;
        table = new list<int>[BUCKET];
    }
 
    void insertItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        table[index].push_back(key);
    }
 
    void deleteItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        table[index].remove(key);
    }
 
    bool searchItem(int key) {
        int index = key % BUCKET;
        for (auto x : table[index]) {
            if (x ==
 
 key) return true;
        }
        return false;
    }
 
    void displayHash() {
        for (int i = 0; i < BUCKET; i++) {
            cout << i;
            for (auto x : table[i])
                cout << " --> " << x;
            cout << endl;
        }
    }
};
 
int main() {
    int keys[] = {15, 11, 27, 8, 12};
    int n = sizeof(keys) / sizeof(keys[0]);
 
    HashTable h(7);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        h.insertItem(keys[i]);
    }
 
    h.displayHash();
 
    return 0;
}

Recursion and Backtracking

Key Concepts

Recursion: Function calling itself.
Backtracking: Trying out all possible solutions and eliminating invalid ones.

Example Problem: Solving N-Queens Problem

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
 
bool isSafe(vector<vector<int>>& board, int row, int col) {
    int i, j;
    int N = board.size();
 
    for (i = 0; i < col; i++)
        if (board[row][i])
            return false;
 
    for (i = row, j = col; i >= 0 && j >= 0; i--, j--)
        if (board[i][j])
            return false;
 
    for (i = row, j = col; j >= 0 && i < N; i++, j--)
        if (board[i][j])
            return false;
 
    return true;
}
 
bool solveNQUtil(vector<vector<int>>& board, int col) {
    int N = board.size();
    if (col >= N)
        return true;
 
    for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
        if (isSafe(board, i, col)) {
            board[i][col] = 1;
 
            if (solveNQUtil(board, col + 1))
                return true;
 
            board[i][col] = 0;
        }
    }
 
    return false;
}
 
void solveNQ(int N) {
    vector<vector<int>> board(N, vector<int>(N, 0));
 
    if (solveNQUtil(board, 0)) {
        for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
            for (int j = 0; j < N; j++)
                cout << board[i][j] << " ";
            cout << endl;
        }
    } else {
        cout << "Solution does not exist" << endl;
    }
}
 
int main() {
    int N = 4;
    solveNQ(N);
    return 0;
}

Dynamic Programming

Key Concepts

Solving problems by breaking them into simpler subproblems and storing the results to avoid redundant calculations.

Example Problem: Fibonacci Sequence

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int fib(int n) {
    int* f = new int[n + 1];
    f[0] = 0;
    f[1] = 1;
 
    for (int i = 2; i <= n; i++) {
        f[i] = f[i - 1] + f[i - 2];
    }
 
    return f[n];
}
 
int main() {
    int n = 10;
    cout << "Fibonacci number is " << fib(n) << endl;
    return 0;
}

Sorting Algorithms

Key Concepts

Arranging elements in a particular order.
Common algorithms: Bubble Sort, Selection Sort, Insertion Sort, Merge Sort, Quick Sort, Heap Sort.

Example Problem: Quick Sort

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
void swap(int* a, int* b) {
    int t = *a;
    *a = *b;
    *b = t;
}
 
int partition(int arr[], int low, int high) {
    int pivot = arr[high];
    int i = (low - 1);
 
    for (int j = low; j <= high - 1; j++) {
        if (arr[j] < pivot) {
            i++;
            swap(&arr[i], &arr[j]);
        }
    }
    swap(&arr[i + 1], &arr[high]);
    return (i + 1);
}
 
void quickSort(int arr[], int low, int high) {
    if (low < high) {
        int pi = partition(arr, low, high);
 
        quickSort(arr, low, pi - 1);
        quickSort(arr, pi + 1, high);
    }
}
 
void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        cout << arr[i] << " ";
    cout << endl;
}
 
int main() {
    int arr[] = {10, 7, 8, 9, 1, 5};
    int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
    quickSort(arr, 0, n - 1);
    cout << "Sorted array: ";
    printArray(arr, n);
    return 0;
}

Searching Algorithms

Key Concepts

Finding an element in a collection.
Common algorithms: Linear Search, Binary Search.

Example Problem: Binary Search

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 
int binarySearch(int arr[], int l, int r, int x) {
    while (l <= r) {
        int m = l + (r - l) / 2;
 
        if (arr[m] == x)
            return m;
 
        if (arr[m] < x)
            l = m + 1;
        else
            r = m - 1;
    }
 
    return -1;
}
 
int main() {
    int arr[] = {2, 3, 4, 10, 40};
    int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
    int x = 10;
    int result = binarySearch(arr, 0, n - 1, x);
    if (result != -1)
        cout << "Element is present at index " << result << endl;
    else
        cout << "Element is not present in array" << endl;
    return 0;
}

...

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Master C++ and DSA: Beginner's Guide

Master C++ and DSA: Beginner's Guide

Introduction to C++

Where to write C++ Code??

Easy-to-Understand Code Examples

1. Variables and Data Types

Common Data Types:

Example:

2. Control Statements

Example:

3. Loops

Types of Loops in C++:

Example (for loop):

4. Functions

Example:

5. Arrays

Example:

6. Pointers

Example:

7. Structures and Unions

8. Dynamic Memory Allocation

9. File I/O

10. Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

Basic Example of OOP in C++

Difference Between Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) and Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

11. C++ Templates & STL

C++ Standard Template Library (STL)

Data Structures and Algorithms (DSA)

Table of Contents

Arrays

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Find the Maximum Element

Strings

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Reverse a String

Linked Lists

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Reverse a Singly Linked List

Stacks

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Check for Balanced Parentheses

Queues

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Implement a Queue using Two Stacks

Trees

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Inorder Traversal of a Binary Tree

Graphs

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Depth-First Search (DFS)

Hashing

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Implement a Simple Hash Table

Recursion and Backtracking

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Solving N-Queens Problem

Dynamic Programming

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Fibonacci Sequence

Sorting Algorithms

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Quick Sort

Searching Algorithms

Key Concepts

Example Problem: Binary Search

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Related Posts

Master C++ and DSA: Beginner's Guide

Master C++ and DSA: Beginner's Guide

Introduction to C++

Where to write C++ Code??

Easy-to-Understand Code Examples

1. Variables and Data Types

Common Data Types:

Example:

2. Control Statements

Example:

3. Loops

Types of Loops in C++:

Example (`for` loop):

Example (`for` loop):